Comparison of Hot and Cool Executive Function of the of Brain Young Athletes With Close Cognitive Needs in Open and Closed Skills: Quasi-Experimental Study

Document Type : Original Articles

Authors
Moniralsadat Arvin 1
Zohreh Meshkati 2
Rokhsareh Badami 2
1 PhD Student, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran
2 Associate Professor, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran
10.48305/jrrs.2024.42338.1077
Abstract
Introduction: Executive functions not only play an important role in shaping the future-oriented cognitive skills of adolescents under relatively abstract and non-emotional conditions (cool executive function) but also in important and emotional motivational conditions (hot executive function). Empirical evidence shows that there is a relationship between executive function, exercise, and physical activity. However, all forms of physical activity do not affect cognition in the same way. The research aims to compare the effect of exercise with close cognitive needs on the executive functions of semi-skilled athletes.
Materials and Methods: 100 female semi-skilled athletes participating in club shooting sports (50 fixed targets, 50 flying targets) in the age range of 13 to 18 years were selected from among the shooters of Yazd province. To detect cold executive functions, N-back, modified flanker, Wisconsin card sorting tests were used, and Iowa decision-making test was used to measure warm executive functions. Then the data analysis was done according to the results of the tests.
Results: The difference between the mean scores of congruent response and incongruent response of response inhibition in two groups of athletes with open and closed skills was significant and in favor of open skill (P < 0.001). But the results have shown that all three parts of score, net score and time in hot work, as well as result and time in working memory and two dimensions of classes and remaining in cognitive flexibility in two groups of athletes with open and closed skills show a significant difference have not given (P < 0.05).
Conclusion: The results of our research confirm the widespread transfer hypothesis. This problem indicates that the division of sports into open and closed sports skills cannot be a suitable criterion for measuring the impact of the environment on executive functions. An environment with moderate cognitive needs in open skill can have the same effect as a closed environment with similar cognitive needs.
Keywords
Executive function
Open skill
Closed skill
Athlete
Subjects
1.     Schmid D, Qazi A, Scott NM, Tomporowski PD. The effects of physical activity timing and complexity on episodic memory: A randomized controlled trial. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2023 Jan 1; 64: 102332.
2.     Li Q, Yin J, Luo J. Legs move, thoughts flow: Physical exercise influences creative thinking. Advances in Psychological Science. 2023; 31(3): 455.
3.     Carson V, Hunter S, Kuzik N, Wiebe SA, Spence JC, Friedman A, Tremblay MS, Slater L, Hinkley T. Systematic review sport of physical activity and cognitive development in early childhood. Journal of science and medicine in 2016; 19(7): 573-8.
4.     Diamond A, Ling DS. Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not. Developmental cognitive neuroscience. 2016; 18: 34-48.
5.     Huijgen BC, Leemhuis S, Kok NM, Verburgh L, Oosterlaan J, Elferink-Gemser MT, Visscher C. Cognitive functions in elite and sub-elite youth soccer players aged 13 to 17 years. PloS one. 2015; 10(12): e0144580.
6.     Verburgh L, Scherder EJ, Van Lange PA, Oosterlaan J. Do elite and amateur soccer players outperform non-athletes on neurocognitive functioning? A study among 8-12 year old children. PloS one. 2016; 11(12): e0165741.
7. Mallek M, Benguigui N, Dicks M, Thouvarecq R. Sport expertise in perception–action coupling revealed in a visuomotor tracking task. European journal of sport science. 2017; 17(10): 1270-8. 
8.     Furley P, Memmert D, Schmid S. Perceptual load in sport and the heuristic value of the perceptual load paradigm in examining expertise-related perceptual-cognitive adaptations. Cognitive processing. 2013; 14: 31-42.
9.     Alves H, Voss MW, Boot WR, Deslandes A, Cossich V, Salles JI, Kramer AF. Perceptual-cognitive expertise in elite volleyball players. Frontiers in psychology. 2013; 4: 36.
10.  Vazou S, Pesce C, Lakes K, Smiley-Oyen A. More than one road leads to Rome: A narrative review and meta-analysis of physical activity intervention effects on cognition in youth. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2019; 17(2): 153-78.
11.  Jacobson J, Matthaeus L. Athletics and executive functioning: How athletic participation and sport type correlate with cognitive performance. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2014; 15(5): 521-7.
12.  Nuri L, Shadmehr A, Ghotbi N, Attarbashi Moghadam B. Reaction time and anticipatory skill of athletes in open and closed skill-dominated sport. European journal of sport science. 2013; 13(5): 431-6.
13.  Elferink-Gemser MT, Faber IR, Visscher C, Hung TM, De Vries SJ, Nijhuis-Van der Sanden MW. Higher-level cognitive functions in Dutch elite and sub-elite table tennis players. PloS one. 2018; 13(11): e0206151.
14.  Taddei F, Bultrini A, Spinelli D, Di Russo F. Neural correlates of attentional and executive processing in middle-age fencers. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2012; 44(6): 1057-66.
15.  Tsai CL, Wang CH, Pan CY, Chen FC, Huang SY, Tseng YT. The effects of different exercise types on visuospatial attention in the elderly. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2016; 26: 130-8.
16.  Heilmann F, Wollny R, Lautenbach F. Inhibition and calendar age explain variance in game performance of youth soccer athletes. International journal of environmental research and public health. 2022; 19(3): 1138.
17.  Taatgen NA. The nature and transfer of cognitive skills. Psychological review. 2013; 120(3): 439.
18.  Voss MW, Kramer AF, Basak C, Prakash RS, Roberts B. Are expert athletes ‘expert’in the cognitive laboratory? A meta‐analytic review of cognition and sport expertise. Applied cognitive psychology. 2010; 24(6): 812-26.
19.  Rigoli D, Piek JP, Kane R, Oosterlaan J. Motor coordination, working memory, and academic achievement in a normative adolescent sample: Testing a mediation model. Archives of clinical neuropsychology. 2012; 27(7): 766-80.
20.  Tsai CL, Wang WL. Exercise-mode-related changes in task-switching performance in the elderly. Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience. 2015; 9: 56.
21.  Krenn B, Finkenzeller T, Würth S, Amesberger G. Sport type determines differences in executive functions in elite athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2018; 38: 72-9.
22.  Wang CH, Chang CC, Liang YM, Shih CM, Chiu WS, Tseng P, Hung DL, Tzeng OJ, Muggleton NG, Juan CH. Open vs. closed skill sports and the modulation of inhibitory control. PloS one. 2013; 8(2): e55773.
23.  Koch P, Krenn B. Executive functions in elite athletes–Comparing open-skill and closed-skill sports and considering the role of athletes' past involvement in both sport categories. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2021; 55: 101925.
24.  Zhu H, Chen A, Guo W, Zhu F, Wang B. Which Type of Exercise Is More Beneficial for Cognitive Function? A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Open-Skill Exercise versus Closed-Skill Exercise among Children, Adults, and Elderly Populations. Appl. Sci. 2020; 10: 2737
25.  Yongtawee A, Park J, Kim Y, Woo M. Athletes have different dominant cognitive functions depending on type of sport. Int. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 2021; 20: 1-15.
26.  Guo W, Wang B, Lu Y, Zhu Q, Shi Z, Ren J. The relationship between different exercise modes and visuospatial working memory in older adults: A cross-sectional study. Peer J 2016; 4: e2254.
27.  Yongtawee A, Woo MJ. The influence of gender, sports type and training experience on cognitive functions in adolescent athletes. Exerc. Sci. 201; 26: 159-67.
28.  Ballester R, Huertas F, Pablos-Abella C, Llorens F, Pesce C. Chronic participation in externally paced, but not self-paced sports is associated with the modulation of domain-general cognition. European journal of sport science. 2019; 19(8): 1110-9.
29.  Nakamoto H, Mori S. Effects of stimulus–response compatibility in mediating expert performance in baseball players. Brain research. 2008; 1189: 179-88.
30.  Heilmann F, Weinberg H, Wollny R. The impact of practicing open-vs. Closed-skill sports on executive functions—A meta-analytic and systematic review with a focus on characteristics of sports. Brain Sciences. 2022; 12(8): 1071.
31.  Allen R, Fioratou E, McGeorge P. Cognitive adaptation: spatial memory or attentional processing. A comment on Furley and Memmert (2010). Perceptual and Motor Skills. 2011; 112(1): 243-6.
32.  Ludyga S, Mücke M, Andrä C, Gerber M, Pühse U. Neurophysiological correlates of interference control and response inhibition processes in children and adolescents engaging in open-and closed-skill sports. Journal of Sport and Health Science. 2022; 11(2): 224-33.
33.  Poon K. Hot and cool executive functions in adolescence: Development and contributions to important developmental outcomes. Frontiers in psychology. 2018; 8: 2311.
34.  O'Toole S, Monks CP, Tsermentseli S. Associations between and development of cool and hot executive functions across early childhood. British Journal of Developmental Psychology. 2018; 36(1): 142-8.
35.  Miyake A, Friedman NP, Emerson MJ, Witzki AH, Howerter A, Wager TD. The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive psychology. 2000; 41(1): 49-100.
36.  Kelley WM, Wagner DD, Heatherton TF. In search of a human self-regulation system. Annual review of neuroscience. 2015; 38: 389-411.
37.  Stein, M., Auerswald, M., and Ebersbach, M. (2017). Relationships between motor and executive functions and the effect of an acute coordinative intervention on executive functions in kindergartners. Front. Psychol. 8: 859.
38.  Haqnazari, F., Nejati, V., Pouretemad, H. (2022). Effectiveness of Computerized Working Memory Training on Sustained Attention and Working Memory of Male School Students. The Scientific Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 11(1): 2-13.
39.  Ismaili, Staki, Shahriari-Ahmadi. Evaluation and comparison of the effectiveness of Parisa and Pars cognitive rehabilitation packages in improving working memory and maintaining attention in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. New psychological research. 2022; 67(17): 14-23.
40.  Kodadadi, Mojtaba; Nazar Boland, neda & Amani, Hossein 2014.N-back ­software.Institiute for behavioral & cognitive sciences. Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran.
41.  Nushi M, Rahimi S, Rahimi F. The Effect of Digital Image Guide on EFL Learners’ Intercultural Communicative Competence. Critical Language and Literary Studies. 2021; 18(26): 267-98.
42.  Barzegarpoor H, Rajabi H, Button D, Fayazmilani R. The effect of simultaneous physical and brain endurance training on fatigue and exercise tolerance inactive people. Journal of Practical Studies of Biosciences in Sport, 2021; 19(18): 72-83.
43.  Kodadadi, Mojtaba; Barzegar, Hamidreza & Amani, Hossein 2017.Modified flanker Task software.Institiute for behavioral & cognitive sciences. Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran.
44.  Van Cutsem J, De Pauw K, Buyse L, Marcora SM, Meeusen R, Roelands B. Effects of mental fatigue on endurance performance in the heat. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2017; 49(8): 1677-87.
45.  Heaton RK, Chelune GJ, Talley JL, Kay GG, Curtiss G. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test manual: Revised and expanded (2th ed). Odessa: FL: Psychological Assessment Resources Inc, 1993; 62.
46.  Khodadadi, Mojtaba; shahgholian, mahnaz & Amani, Hossein 2014. Wiscansin card sorting test ­software.Institiute for behavioral & cognitive sciences. Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran.
47.  Rezayee M, Ashayeri HA, Yazdandoost R. Asgharnezhad A.A Frontal lobe cognitive functioning in conduct disordered adolescents. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology. 2003; 9(2): 30-9.
48.  Stauss E, Sherman E, Spreen O. A Compendium of neuropsychological tests. Administration Norms and Commentary. Oxford University Press, New York. 2006.
49.  Amouzadeh F, Gharayagh Zandy H, Moradisabzevar M, Rostami R, Moghadamzadeh A. Impact of Transcranial Direct Current Stmulation (tDCS) on the Cognitive flexibility of hyperactive student-athletes. Psychology of Exceptional Individuals. 2021; 11(41): 47-75.
50.  Naderi N. Study of information processing and some functions of neuropsychology in people with obsessive-compulsive disorder. (Unpublished master dissertation). Tehran: Psychiatric Institute, 1994. [In Persian].
51.  Bagleri, Maleki, Mohammad, Qaini. The effect of one-session aerobic physical activity on athletes' response inhibition. Movement behavior. 2015; 6(18): 85-102
52.  Shahqalian, Azad Falah, Fathi Ashtiani, Khodadadi. Designing a software version of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST): theoretical foundations, construction method and psychometric properties. Clinical psychology studies. 2012; 1(4): 110-34.
53.  Kodadadi M, Saed O, Amani H. Iowa gambling Task ­software.Institiute for behavioral & cognitive sciences. Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran, 2014.
54.  Hashemian SS, Hossein H, Barjali A, Rafazi Z, Asgari M. The role of money in daily life decisions: Investigating the effect of money on decision-making dimensions with uncertain consequences, 2022.‎
55.  Pouladi,F,Bagheri,M,Askarizadeh,G. Influence of tDCS on right hemisphere OFC on executive performance of high risk decision making and risk taking. Neuropsychology. 2020; 6(1):47-62.
56.  Buelow MT, Suhr JA. Construct validity of the Iowa gambling task. Neuropsychology review. 2009; 19: 102-14.
57.  De Waelle S, Laureys F, Lenoir M, Bennett SJ, Deconinck FJ. Children involved in team sports show superior executive function compared to their peers involved in self-paced sports. Children. 2021 Mar 30;8(4):264.
58.  Holfelder B, Klotzbier TJ, Eisele M, Schott N. Hot and cool executive function in elite-and amateur-adolescent athletes from open and closed skills sports. Frontiers in psychology. 2020; 11: 694.
59.  Chang EC, Chu CH, Karageorghis CI, Wang CC, Tsai JH, Wang YS, Chang YK. Relationship between mode of sport training and general cognitive performance. Journal of Sport and Health Science. 2017; 6(1): 89-95.
60.  Dai CT, Chang YK, Huang CJ, Hung TM. Exercise mode and executive function in older adults: an ERP study of task-switching. Brain and cognition. 2013; 83(2): 153-62.
61.  Li D, Huang CJ, Liu SC, Chang KH, Hung TM. Exercise type relates to inhibitory and error processing functions in older adults. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition. 2019; 26(6): 865-81.
62.  Furley P, Wood G. Working memory, attentional control, and expertise in sports: A review of current literature and directions for future research. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition. 2016; 5(4): 415-25.
63.  Diamond A. Executive functions. Annual review of psychology. 2013; 64: 135-68.
64.  Ferguson HJ, Brunsdon VE, Bradford EE. The developmental trajectories of executive function from adolescence to old age. Scientific reports. 2021; 11(1): 1382.
65.  Shao M, Lai Y, Gong A, Yang Y, Chen T, Jiang C. Effect of shooting experience on executive function: Differences between experts and novices. PeerJ. 2020; 8: e9802.
66.  Wang B, Guo W. Exercise mode and attentional networks in older adults: A cross-sectional study. PeerJ. 2020; 8: e8364.
67.  Yamashiro K, Sato D, Onishi H, Sugawara K, Nakazawa S, Shimojo H, Akatsuka K, Nakata H, Maruyama A. Skill-specific changes in somatosensory nogo potentials in baseball players. PloS one. 2015; 10(11): e0142581.
68.  Nyongesa MK, Ssewanyana D, Mutua AM, Chongwo E, Scerif G, Newton CR, Abubakar A. Assessing executive function in adolescence: A scoping review of existing measures and their psychometric robustness. Frontiers in psychology. 2019; 10: 311.
Journal of Research in Rehabilitation Sciences
Volume 19, Issue 1
April 2023
Pages 133-143